به کانون زبان پاسارگاد خوش آمدید.

b)      After prepositions (of, to, in, for, by, on, off, up,…) as object of preposition:

There was no reason for canceling the race.

He is good at running.

You can get good marks by studying more.

c)      After the following verbs:

                                    He kept running until the end.

She enjoys watching cartoons.

Would you mind closing the window?

Lesson Three

1.       Clause is a part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, usually joined to the rest of the sentence by a conjunction[3]. It is divided into:

a.       Noun Clause: I don’t know what he discovered.

b.      Adjective Clause: The smoke that you see is from the hills.

c.       Adverb Clause: It was difficult to observe the stars before the telescope was invented.

2.       Phrase is a group of related words that does not have a subject and a verb: the silly old man; would have been repaired; in the country; working in this factory.

Adjective clauses can be changed into adjective phrases in two ways[4]:

a.       The subject pronoun(who, that, which) and the be form of the verb is omitted:

Clause:      The man who is talking to John is from Korea.

Phrase:       The man talking to John is from Korea.

Clause:      The books that are on that shelf are mine.

Phrase:       The books on that shelf are mine.

b.      If there is no be form of a verb, it is sometimes possible to omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its ing form:

Clause:      English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.

Phrase:        English has an alphabet consisting of 26 letters.

Clause:      Anyone who has a library card may check out books.

Phrase:       Anyone having a library card may check out books.

Lesson Four

1.       Clauses of result with such/so . . . that

a.       Such is an adjective and is used before an adjective + noun:

They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house.

He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep.

b.      So is an adverb and is used before adverbs and with adjectives which are not followed by their nouns:

The snow fell so fast that our footsteps were soon covered up.

His speech went on for so long that people began to fall asleep.

Their dog was so fierce that no one dared come near it.

But such is never used before much, many, few and little, so so is used even when much, many, few and little are followed by nouns:

There was so much dust that we couldn’t see what was happening.

So many people complained that they took the program off.

He has so few friends that he is always lonely.

Note that such + a + adjective + noun is replaceable by so + adjective + a + noun, so that ‘such a good man’ is replaceable by ‘so good a man’. This is only possible when a noun is preceded by a/an. Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence. It is then followed by the inverted form of the verb.

So terrible was the storm that whole roofs were ripped off.

2.       Adverbs of degree

a.       So:

                                                               i.      As an adverb of degree meaning very: We had to buy so many things. Don’t be so silly.

                                                             ii.      As a linking word: Ben had lost his money, so he had to borrow some from me.

                                                            iii.      As a pronoun in replies: ‘Will you be able to help us?’ ‘I hope so.’

‘Has the new carpet arrived?’ ‘I don’t think so.’

                                                           iv.      At the front of a clause (so+ auxiliary / be + subject): ‘We often go to theatre.’ ‘So do we.’

b.      Such:

                                                               i.      as a determiner to express strong feelings about something:

I’m sorry you had such terrible weather!       

Don’t be such an idiot!

                                                             ii.      in the pattern: such(a/an) (…) + noun+ as+ noun phrase/clause:

I’ve never lived in such a large house as this before.

                                                            iii.      as a pronoun:

‘My son doesn’t want to see me anymore!’ ‘Oh dear! Such is life!’

c.       Very ( adverb[5]): means ‘to a high degree’ is used:

                                                               i.      Before adjectives: The coat is very expensive.

                                                             ii.      before adverbs: I saw her very recently.

                                                            iii.      before quantity word: He earns very little.

d.      Enough: means ‘sufficient’ or sufficiently’. It can be used in:

                                                               i.       adjective / adverb +enough + for + noun phrase:

Is the water hot enough for a bath?

                                                             ii.      adjective / adverb +enough + to + infinitive:

He is old enough to be her father.

[1] We use as in the following situations to

Talk about the job, function, use or role of a person or thing. – I used my shoe as a hammer.

Compare actions or situations by saying that they are similar. – In Greece, as in Italy, they use a lot of olive oil in cooking. It’s as cold as ice.

Form the expressions and conjunctions; as you know, as we agreed, as you suggested, as if, as though – It looks as if/as though it’s going to rain.

[2] The verbs allow and permit have similar meanings and uses. Both words can be followed by object + infinitive: We do not allow /permit people to smoke in the hall.

When there is no personal object, a gerund is used: We do not allow/permit smoking in the hall.

[3] The conjunctions are 1: subject pronouns (who, which, that, what); 2: object pronouns (whom, which, that, what); 3: possessive pronoun (whose). We can use that instead of (who, whom, which).That cannot be used after preposition, so the following sentence is wrong:

It is a thing of that we have all heard. And the sentence “It is a thing of which we have all heard.’ is correct. The difference between who and that is that the pronoun that limits the meaning of its antecedent. Therefore there is a difference between: “My brother who lives in London” and “My brother that lives in London”. Who shows that the speaker has only one brother but that shows that the speaker has several brothers. A sentence “My father that lives in London” is completely wrong because it shows that the speaker has more than one father!

[4] Only adjective clauses that have a subject pronoun are reduced to adjective phrases, so we cannot reduce the clause “The boy whom I saw was Tom. “  to phrase because it has object pronoun not subject pronoun. We can only omit the object pronoun itself: “The boy I saw was Tom. “

If the tenses are not the same, we cannot reduce the clauses to phrases, too: I want to talk to the person who broke that cup.

[5] As an adjective, very comes after the and normally comes before a noun; it means exactly or adds emphasis:

We climbed to the very top of the mountain. (=’the highest point’)